The literary genre of “magical realism” is defined as “fiction that maintains a discourse appropriate to an objective and realistic narrative, while recounting fantastic or supernatural events alongside commonplace happenings” (UVic). In creating a work of this genre, an author must fuse imaginary people, places, and circumstances with those that can be seen as commonplace and every-day. The simultaneous existence of both mundane and fantastical events, where each is accepted as conventional by both the reader and characters within the work, places “magical realism” under the literary category of postmodernism. Often, the use of such fiction is to serve both allegorical and moral purposes, and author Salman Rushdie’s implementation of postmodernist “magical realism” is no exception. In Haroun and the Sea of Stories, the Indian-born author of Islamic faith fuses a mixture of pop culture, literary references, Indo-Pakistani cultural-isms, and imaginary people and places with the purpose of not only expressing profound social, political, and religious ideas, but also of emphasizing the importance of stories and storytelling in people’s lives. Because both modern and old-fashioned Eastern and Western cultural-isms intertwine, one can understand Rushdie’s true postmodernist approach to the work. As critic Thomas Kullmann writes: “Rushdie as a post-modern author arranges an ironical survey of various and seemingly incompatible traditions” and “provides an insight into the workings of language and texts, fictional and otherwise.”
Rushdie wrote this novel while in forced exile due to the fatwa placed upon him by the Muslim world, and the novel is allegorical of the author’s predicament during that time, 
as he was unable to exercise his freedom of speech without succumbing to the hostility of extremist Islamic leaders. The work is intertextual, a characteristic of postmodernism, in that it responds to his previous work “The Satanic Verses”, for which he received the fatwa. However this fact is masked by the use of very imaginative subject matter. In the novel, a prominent storyteller, Rashid Khalifa, also known as the “Shah of Blah” and the “Ocean of Notions”, loses his ability to tell stories, and must recover it, with the help of his son Haroun. The city in which the two live is described as being “a sad city, the saddest of cities, a city so ruinously sad that it had lost its name”, and a place that contained “factories in which sadness was actually manufactured” (Rushdie 15). Rashid “whose cheerfulness was famous throughout that unhappy metropolis”, receives his stories from a magical ocean known as “The Sea of Stories”, of which he has a subscription to the “story streams” that are produced there (Rushdie 15, 17). His ability to tell stories allows him to be employed by politicos across the country of Alifbay. As Rushdie states, “Nobody ever believed anything a politico said, even though they pretended as hard as they could that they were telling the truth. (In fact, this was how everyone knew they were lying)” (Rushdie 20). Rashid, however, is well known and liked by the people and one whose words they can trust. For this reason, the “Shah of Blah” is hired to speak at the political rally of one politician, Snooty Buttoo. It is clear that Buttoo is generally disliked by the public, as he travels with a large number of “henchmen” that are always “within earshot” of Rashid and his son. Haroun wonders, “How popular can this Buttoo be if he needs all these soldiers to protect hi
m?” (Rushdie 42). When Rashid’s wife, Soraya, has an affair with their neighbor, Mr. Sengupta, and leaves the family, the storyteller begins having trouble remembering and creating his stories, and the subscription to the Sea is cancelled. When this occurs, however, he is completely unable to tell stories, and thus unable to satisfy those in the sad city who depend on his upbeat raconteuring (Rushdie 16). Just as Haroun, skeptical of his father’s talent, asks Rashid, “What’s the use of stories that aren’t even true?”, this question is repeated throughout the novel, but it becomes apparent, when the conflict is resolved, that the answer is that the “ultimate appeal of stories lies not in what they actually say but in what sentiments they evoke” (Sen 654). This idea is demonstrated by the fact the constituents of Mister Buttoo reject his attempt to gain power after listening to Rashid’s tale, and decide to “choose leaders they actually like”, showing the power that words may hold (Rushdie 207). The novel also presents a classic “good vs. evil” style conflict between the those that support stories (Haroun, Rashid, and the Guppees) and those that are against them (Khattam-Shud, and the Chupwalas), in which the “good” side triumphs, restoring the powers of storytelling to the people, and bringing new happiness throughout the country. The Guppees of Gup City are the protectors of the Sea of Stories, while the Chupwalas of Chup City attempt to poison the streams by turning the stories it creates into nightmares, hoping to eventually end all storytelling. Khattam-Shud and his cult of the Zipped-Lips seem to represent the Ayatollah, as they attempt to put an end to storytelling, while in real-life, the Islamist group attempt to prevent Rushdie from telling his stories by placing a fatwa on the author (Kullmann). The two also are also rivals in many other respects. “Gup is bright and Chup is dark. Gup is warm and Chup is freezing cold. Gup is all chattering and noise, whereas Chup is as silent as a shadow” (Rushdie 125). This clash between opposite ideologies follows the format of oral traditions and legends, most likely an intentional approach to the tale made by the author. 
In following the aforementioned theme of ancient Eastern storytelling techniques, Rushdie focuses on the use of his own mother-tongues, the major Indian and Pakistani languages, which include Urdu and Hindi, to convey his messages. For instance, several of the names of characters and places throughout the work are derived from these languages and contain meanings central to the story’s message. The characters whose names contain meaning and are related to the significance of storytelling and communication include Batcheat: “Chit-chat”, Bat-Mat-Karo: “Do-Not-Speak”, Gup: “gossip”, Kahani: “story”, Khamosh: “Silent” and Khattam-Shud: “The End” (Rushdie 215, 216). The use of the author’s own ethnic language as the names for places and characters illustrates both the significance that one’s culture has in stories, and the significance that stories have in culture.
Although Rushdie attempts to represent Indian and other Eastern cultures backgrounds with an oral-tradition and word-of-mouth transference-like approach to the work, while also utilizing a plot filled with magical occurrences, and a fantasy-like setting, the author uses pop-cultural references throughout, allowing for otherwise impossible occurrences to convey messages that are understood by the reader. This use of seemingly anachronistic references is a major aspect in the post-modernity of the work. Some of these references even make political commentary. Rushdie names the “Grand Comptroler” of Gup City, “The Walrus”, and his cabinet, the “Eggheads”. This, of course, is a reference to the Beatle’s song, “I am the Walrus”, as is actually stated in the novel, and similar to the lyric in the song, “They are the Eggheads. He is the Walrus” (Rushdie 58).
“Egghead” has a negative connotation that shows the lack of competence that Rushdie may possibly associate with political figures. “The Walrus” is so named because of his mustache, a unique feature that the walrus animal is noted for. While his mustache may be considered rather thin compared to the people of Earth, as Haroun points out, he is the only Guppee person that is able to grow hair on any part of his body, and is thus well respected within the community (Rushdie 90). As the novel is on the surface a children’s tale, other references made are more suited to younger individuals. The chauffeur of the Khalifas, Mr. Butt, while traveling through the Valley of K, is called a “looney tune” by one of the passengers, when the driver operates the automobile 
recklessly and well over the speed limit (Rushdie 36). These “Western culture” references fused with “Eastern cultural-like” settings and characters show that stories are significant in all cultures, no matter the mediums in which these stories are told, whether they are through the use of film, recorded music, or oral tradition.
In Haroun and the Sea of Stories, This postmodern blending of Eastern and Western cultural-isms can also be found throughout Rushdie’s references and allusions to well known works of literature, allowing the reader to make connections with stories transmitting similar messages and themes. In fact, the title of the novel makes references to two different collections of stories. The first is a reference to Arabian Nights as Haroun and Rashid are names borrowed from the story collection’s famous caliph, Haroun al Rashid. The other reference made in the title is to Indian Kathasaritsagara, meaning “Ocean of the Streams of Story” (Kullmann). Also, the house boat that is used as Rashid and Haroun’s sleeping quarters is called Arabian Nights Plus One, “Plus One” being used for the purpose of showing the reader that the grandiloquence of the boat “one-ups” the splendor of Arabian Nights (Rushdie 51). Other works of literature are referenced when the Prince of Gup City, Bolo, with vanity, changes the titles of classic works such as to include his own name. These include: “Bolo and the Golden Fleece”, “Bolo and the Wonderful Lamp”, “Bolo and the Forty Thieves”, “Bolo the Sailor”, “Bolo and Juliet”, and “Bolo in Wonderland” (Rushdie 98, 99). The addition of the Prince’s name in these stories highlights Rushdie’s possible contempt of royalty, as the young prince is very arrogant, impulsive, and obstinate. In addition, an allusion is made to Roald Dahl’s Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, as a family friend of the Khalifas, Ms. Oneeta, gets a job in a chocolate factory with “as many chocolates as [she] requires free of charge” when all is resolved, and happiness has returned to Alifbay (Rushdie 209). That particular allusion allows children to find associations between Haroun and the Sea of Stories and works that they may have read. The stories that appear in the Sea of Stories also make references to famous traditional tales. When Haroun samples one of the “poisoned” streams, the story that it contains begins very much in the same way as the Grimm Brothers fairytale “Rapunzel”, or as it is defined by the Guppees: “Princess Rescue Story G/1001/RIM/777/M(w)i, better known as ‘Rapunzel.’” At first, the original plot of the tale is followed, as the protagonist, the Prince climbs up a tower using the Princess’ hair, but the “poisoning” of the story becomes apparent when the story begins to alter unexpectedly. The Prince, when halfway up the tower, morphs into a large spider, scaring the Princess, and forcing her to cut off her hair, sending the spider downward to its death (Rushdie 74). This transformation into the arachnid is an allusion to Kafka’s short story, “Die 
Verwandlung” (Kullmann). Finally, when the Shadow Warrior attempts to speak, he is only able to produce a few weak sounds: “Gogol”, a reference to writer Nikolai Gogol and “Kafkafka”, a second reference to Franz Kafka. These references are utilized by Rushdie both in bringing familiarity to the reader and also allowing for the reader to recognize universality of message throughout literature.
Salman Rushdie’s Haroun and the Sea of Stories exercises a postmodern blending of different mediums that emphasizes the overall importance of storytelling in life. Rushdie, himself a storyteller, imparts his vast knowledge of literature, his own Eastern-world and his adopted Western cultural identities, and his vivid imagination in depicting his social, political, and cultural ideals, within an otherwise straightforward tale. Rushdie’s ability to mix these elements facilitates the reader’s understanding of the author’s somewhat foreign and imaginative subject matter and the lessons that are conveyed in his novels. The postmodern depiction of universal themes are all expressed through some form of storytelling, and without “stories” and those that tell them, these lessons will not be communicated to the people, and in this fact can the true significance of stories be found.
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